The True Origin of Cloisonné Enamel: History, Definition, and Imperial Chinese Art

Cloisonné enamel jewelry ( sometimes written as cloisonne enamel jewelry ) is often called the “art of fire on copper.” It marries metal, mineral pigments, and flame to produce surfaces of luminous depth. 

For more than six centuries, this craft has traveled across cultures...

This article traces cloisonné’s origin, rise, refinement, and revival, then shows how it continues to inspire modern taste and meaningful gifting.

Origins & Evolution: Crossroads of Craft and Culture

Though cloisonné is deeply associated with China today, the technique has early roots in the Mediterranean and Byzantine traditions before spreading along trade routes into Central and East Asia. Over centuries, artisans learned to partition designs with fine wires (the “cloisons”) and fill them with powdered enamel, then fire the piece until the enamel fused into glassy color.

For a concise encyclopedic overview, see Britannica’s entry on cloisonné. For a broader historical survey, including regional variants and terminology, consult Wikipedia’s article on cloisonné.

Cloisonné in Imperial China: Tang, Song, Yuan, and Ming

Due to the lack of definitive historical records and surviving artifacts, the origin of cloisonné enamel craftsmanship in China remains uncertain. Scholars hold different views: some believe it originated in the Tang dynasty, others in the Song dynasty, still others in the Yuan dynasty, and some in the Ming dynasty.

1) Tang Dynasty Origin Theory

The Tang dynasty origin theory is based on the Golden Glass Inlaid Twelve-Petal Mirror housed in the Southern Repository of the Shōsōin in Japan. Many scholars consider this piece the earliest surviving example of Chinese cloisonné enamel. The back of the mirror features twelve lotus petals, outlined with fine gold wires in the cloisonné technique, filled with red, green, and blue enamel glazes.

Although its decorative style and glaze colors bear similarities to Tang sancai pottery of the same period, the exact production date and place remain unresolved. Moreover, no contemporary texts or other cloisonné enamel artifacts exist to support the Tang dynasty origin theory. As a result, this theory stands as a single case and remains a matter of debate in academic circles.

 

2) Song Dynasty Origin Theory

Evidence for the Song dynasty origin theory comes primarily from textual records. In Fu Xuan Za Lu (Miscellaneous Records of Leisure) by Gu Wenjian of the Southern Song dynasty, it is recorded:

“I obtained a vase, with a copper body coated in leather, its surface decorated with angular patterns and painted with strange foreign figures. It looked like glass, exquisitely crafted, though I did not know what it was. I heard it was from the Kuibin Kingdom, so I sought the opinion of more knowledgeable people.”

The description—“with a copper body” and “looked like glass”—corresponds closely to the defining characteristics of cloisonné enamel craftsmanship. Thus, scholars suggest that the object mentioned in the text may well have been a cloisonné enamel vase.

However, just like the Tang dynasty origin theory, the Song dynasty cloisonné theory faces the same challenge: there is no surviving artifact or corroborating document from that period, and records on cloisonné enamel in China remain absent from the Song to Yuan dynasties.

The phrase “Kuibin Kingdom” likely refers to an ancient state in Central Asia. This suggests that cloisonné enamel objects may have entered China through trade during the Song dynasty, though whether the craft truly originated in China at that time remains a subject of debate.

 

3) Yuan Dynasty Origin Theory

The Yuan dynasty origin theory is supported by relatively abundant evidence, primarily the Ge Gu Yao Lun (Essential Criteria of Antiquities) by Cao Zhao, and several Yuan cloisonné enamel objects later reattributed. Published in 1388 during the 21st year of the Hongwu reign of the Ming dynasty, Ge Gu Yao Lun is regarded as the earliest surviving Chinese treatise on artifact appraisal. Although compiled in the early Ming, much of its content reflects Yuan dynasty objects.

In the section on “Ancient Kiln Wares,” it records:

“The wares of the Dashi kiln, produced in the Dashi kingdom (Arabia), were made with copper bodies, decorated with five-colored patterns through firing, resembling foreign inlays. I have seen censers, vases, boxes, and cups of this kind. They were suited for women’s boudoirs, but not for the refined scholar’s studio. These were also called wares of the Ghost Country Kiln.”

Here, “Dashi” was the Chinese term for the Arab Caliphate after the Tang dynasty. The description provides a vivid account of the appearance and features of cloisonné enamel wares.

Later, during the Ming Jingtai reign, Wang Zuo expanded upon Cao Zhao’s work in the Newly Supplemented Ge Gu Yao Lun. After the line “wares of the Ghost Country Kiln,” he added:

“Today, people from Yunnan often make wine cups in the capital, commonly called ‘Ghost Country Inlay.’ Those made by the Imperial Palace workshops are fine, smooth, and pleasing.”

The term “Imperial Palace” refers to the royal workshops that oversaw the making of courtly objects, showing that cloisonné enamel gradually gained recognition and acceptance in mainstream Chinese culture.

In addition to these written records, six Yuan dynasty cloisonné enamel objects identified by the Palace Museum (Forbidden City, Beijing) serve as crucial material evidence for this theory.

4) Ming Dynasty Origin Theory

The Ming dynasty origin theory arises from questioning the evidence for the Yuan dynasty origin. Some scholars argue that in the Newly Supplemented Ge Gu Yao Lun, the section on “Ancient Kiln Wares” explicitly mentions “Yuan dynasty” when discussing the Ge kiln, Jizhou kiln, and others, but the Dashi kiln section does not specify “Yuan dynasty.” The term “today” in the text likely refers to the Ming dynasty, the period when the book was compiled.

There is also debate over whether certain cloisonné enamel pieces identified as Yuan dynasty artifacts by the Palace Museum (Forbidden City, Beijing) are truly from the Yuan or the Ming dynasty. In his article On the Origin of Chinese Copper-Body Cloisonné Enamel (Jingtailan), Zhu Chongshou analyzes the forms and decorative patterns of these Palace Museum pieces, concluding that they lack Yuan dynasty characteristics and instead display features typical of the Ming dynasty.

 

Based on the above research, in China, cloisonné reached new artistic heights during the Ming dynasty—especially in the Jingtai reign—giving rise to the celebrated nickname often translated as “Jingtai Blue.” The imperial workshops developed monumental vessels, ritual objects, and palace décor with magnificent floral scrolls, auspicious beasts, and layered cloud motifs. During the Qing dynasty, the repertoire expanded further in both technique and iconography.

For a museum-level perspective on this development, read the Met Museum essay on Chinese cloisonné. You’ll find examples of how color, pattern, and metalwork evolved under imperial patronage and how the craft interfaced with Buddhist and courtly aesthetics.

Today,at ZolanJewelry, this lineage is echoed in modern pieces that translate courtly grace into subtle, wearable forms—such as our Cerulean Iris Cloisonné Enamel Brooch, which turns the grand vocabulary of petals and scrolls into a contemporary statement.

Cloisonné Today: Wearable Art and Heritage Dialogue

Historically, cloisonné appeared as monumental vessels and palace décor. Today, it has entered museums, jewelry cases, and modern collections. Miniaturization, new alloys, and refined color chemistry have unlocked smaller silhouettes, allowing this once-architectural art to find a second life as subtle, wearable forms.

Examples at Zolan include:

• Cerulean Iris Cloisonné Enamel Brooch — Petal gradients and slender scrollwork for a tailored jacket or silk qipao.

 

Craft Dialogues: Linking History to Process

This essay covered the **imperial history, origin theories, and cultural symbolism** of cloisonné enamel. To fully understand how this beautiful art is made, you must explore the technique:

• Continue Reading: The 8-Step Technique, Materials, and Process Guide** → Read the Full Guide

We also frequently pair enamel with **Filigree** (a lace-like metal craft) and **Lacquer** (layered painting) in our designs. For a cultural deep dive into filigree, see our essay The Evolution of Filigree Jewelry in Chinese Culture.

Conservation Mindset: How to Care for Cloisonné

Because enamel is a glass-like surface atop metal, treat it as you would a beloved piece of art:

• Wipe gently with a soft dry cloth after wear.
• Avoid harsh chemicals, ultrasonic cleaners, and prolonged soaking.
• Store pieces separately (fabric pouch or box) to prevent scratches.
• Keep away from extreme temperature swings and direct heat.

These principles align with standard conservation advice for enamel work widely shared by museums and conservators (see Britannica for general background).

Conclusion

Cloisonné enamel jewelry is more than a look—it is a legacy. Born at cultural crossroads, perfected in imperial ateliers, and renewed by contemporary designers, it embodies the union of technique and poetry, patience and color, metal and flame. If you value jewelry that carries history as gracefully as it carries light, cloisonné is your natural companion.

Explore our curated Cloisonné Enamel Collection and discover more within our broader Asian Heritage Collection, letting this ancient art become part of your modern story.